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Linguistic capital
Coza8917: added wiki links
'''Linguistic capital''' is a sociolinguistic term coined by French sociologist and philosopher [[Pierre Bourdieu]]. Bourdieu describes linguistic capital as a form [[cultural capital]], and specifically as the accumulation of a single person's linguistic skills which predetermine their position in society as delegated by powerful institutions. Cultural capital, on the other hand, is a conglomeration of knowledge, skills, and other cultural acquisitions, which is enhanced by educational or technical qualifications.<ref name=":0">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
[[Language]] is a dominant part of our daily activities; playing a significant role in narrating our actions and mediating our interactions with one another. According to author Joseph Sung-Yul Park, "language is understood as a form of capital that is mediated through social power relations".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> These power relations are reflected through language when one's language is decidedly legitimate therefore allowing them access to opportunities such as jobs, services, connections, and personal opportunities.
This term has been used to the describe the different language resources available to a single person and the values assigned to each that one has generated through their personal experiences. Today, this term is used to look at the way in which these resources play a role in power dynamics at all levels, from individual, familial, institutional, governmental, and international roles.
== Linguistic Marketplace ==
There exists the notion of market value when it comes to language. Languages have a market value and a non-market value. A language has market value if said language can be used to attain monetary gains, or if the language can be assigned a price.<ref name=":1">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> For example, if someone speaks language X, it will be easier for them to sell to an X-speaking public, in turn leading to higher profits. In other situations, an employee earns more money simply because they speak language X. In these circumstances language X has a high market value.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
The non-market value of a language is not as straightforward as market value. The non-market value is heavily dependent on the individual and their tastes. When on knows language X, they have access to the language's culture. This will facilitate social interaction with members of the X-speaking language community. This sort of value cannot be measured in terms of market prices. This perspective could also be applied to the non-market value of language diversity. Some people may value highly various languages in their linguistic environment in the same way one would value a natural environmental quality. Both market and non-market values could determine why an individual would or would not decide to learn a language.<ref name=":1" />
According to Bourdieu<ref name=":0" />, people's utterances can be seen as their linguistic products, and they can anticipate the value of their products in the marketplace through different contexts. Different speakers have different quantities of linguistic capital; different speakers have different capacities to produce expressions that is valuable for a specific market. This explains why individuals speak in a certain language, dialect, and tone that is appropriate to their current market, such as their workplace, with family, or in education. Like other forms of capital, the linguistic capital that an individual possess is a metaphorical/abstract reflection of their position in a social space.<ref name=":1" />
== Power Language Index (PLI) ==
In a study conducted by the [[INSEAD|European Institute of Business Administration]], Kai Chan created a Power Language Index that ranked languages based on the following five opportunities provided by language comprehension: the ability to travel widely, the ability to earn a livelihood, the ability to communicate with others, the ability to acquire knowledge and consume media, and the ability to engage in diplomacy.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Within these five sections, Chan used 20 indicators such as the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] associated with countries that speak a certain language, the amount of land area where a language is spoken, and amount of internet/media content associated with the language to rank them. From his research Chan concluded that [[English language|English]] is not only the most powerful language overall, but also the most powerful language across the five categories. The second most powerful language, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], is deemed to be only half as powerful as English as well. This may be surprising since Mandarin is the language spoken by the most people in the world, but it is not spoken widely outside of Mandarin nations and that is where it falls short. As for other languages in the top ten, they can be strong in one or two categories (such as [[French language|French]] for diplomacy or [[Hindi]] in the knowledge and media category), but none have an equivalent across the board dominance like English.
== Theoretical Research ==
=== Canada ===
With [[Canada]] being a country that has two official languages, (English and French), one might believe that it would be of equal importance for immigrants to learn either English or French. However, as Huot et. al (2018) argue, the English language holds much more linguistic capital within much of the Canadian community.<ref name=":2">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> In their [[London, Ontario]]-based study, the entirely Canadian-based research team aimed to interview 10 immigrants from various backgrounds living in London with the goal of examining "the power of language in shaping immigrants' engagement in occupations during their integration into a host society".<ref name=":2" /> The interviews Huot and her team conducted involved asking participants about their integration into the new community and their experiences in finding an occupation. From the interviews, the researchers discovered that across each of the 10 participants, learning English was an essential aspect of their integration into Canadian society. Whether it be for finding work, making daily interactions easier, or for giving their children better opportunities, each of the participants found learning English to be far more important than learning French. As one of the participants described:
"We have to make an incredible effort, like I did, to learn [English] and to speak it perfectly, to search, to study, to volunteer, to look for work. And then after a few...it doesn't take a lot of time, 2 years, 3 years, and... why not? It's worth it. Other-wise, they [immigrants] will remain always reclusive, on the margins of society, and it will be difficult for society and difficult for them".<ref name=":2" />
Relating the study back to the concepts of Bourdieu, the researchers explain how Bourdieu believed that "those whose linguistic resources are devalued are also perceived to be less competent".<ref name=":2" /> By learning and speaking English, the immigrants in this study were able to acquire more linguistic capital, be perceived as being more competent, and establish themselves in Canadian society.
=== South Korea ===
In the case of [[South Korea]], being able to speak English proficiently also elevates one's status within society. However, as explained by Joseph Sung-Yul Park (2011) while writing for the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, since Korean is the dominant monolingual language, the ability to speak English is valued by certain businesses and universities but is obviously not a requirement to fit into South Korean society.<ref name=":3">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Many South Koreans view the English language as valuable commodity of sorts that better allows them to obtain university degrees and high paying jobs. In this sense, South Koreans recognize that being able to speak Korean will only get them so far and that they will need to learn English because it is a language that holds more linguistic capital on the international scale. Park even provides a report from Korean technology giant Samsung's Economic Research Institute that states "Individual workers can increase their competitiveness in employment, promotion, and self-development through improving their English language skills".<ref name=":3" />
Parents in South Korea will also go to great lengths to provide their children with the advantage of being able to speak English. Children will often be enrolled in English-only kindergartens and in some cases placed in study abroad programs in English-speaking countries when they are young in order to better develop a native English-speaking accent. Enormous amounts of money are out forth by Korean parents to ensure that their children can learn English in an attempt to ensure that their kids have the best chance possible to be successful in the future.
This trend of an increased desire to learn English will likely continue in Korea as well because as long as English maintains its position as the dominant language in international business, Korean businesses will continue to place a high value on employees who are able to speak the language.
=== United States ===
One research article highlighted how individuals, especially children who possess linguistic competency in two or more languages, perform better than monolingual individuals on a variety of cognitive measures, such as problem solving tasks.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Later in life, bilingual people reportedly have a five-year delay over monolingual individuals developing dementia, since some additional neural pathways are kept open and functional as a result of using two or more languages.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Professional/vocational — More professional opportunities are available to individuals who speak both.Utilitarianism of Spanish — There are many Spanish language speakers in US, as it is the second largest language in the US. Yet while knowledge of Spanish language may be desirable, according to the article, it is highlighted that some political thought feels endangered by the growing multilingualism in the US.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
== Relationship Between Lingua Franca and Linguistic Capital ==
English exists as the [[Lingua franca|Lingua Franca]] of the world today, due to the diverse complexity and web-like system of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through its geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, author of an article published on the World Economic Forum, Mandarin Chinese Mandarin is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to the limited use outside of Mandarin speaking nations. See attached article.<ref name=":4"></ref>
== Critiques ==
=== English's Prominence on the Internet ===
Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken language in the world, by measure of native first language speakers. However, it is not considered the Lingua Franca of the world, English is. Many scholars attribute the widespread use of English largely to the internet. there are more Chinese nationals surfing the internet than any other nationality in the world, however English remains the most commonly spoken language on the internet. This can be attributed to multiple factors such as the use of websites primarily designed for the use of Chinese for the Chinese people, and censored internet. This can be described as a means of creating a form of [[Language isolate|linguistic isolation]]. According to Arwen Ambricht from the [[World Economic Forum|WE Forum]], the use of Mandarin as a [[Lingua franca|Lingua Franca]] is not spreading because, "it's limited to networks such as Sina Weibo (Chinese Twitter) and Baidu Baike (Chinese Wikipedia). A similar phenomenon can be seen in Russia, where VK (Russian Facebook) is used more than many global social networks."<ref name=":4" />
Bourdieu's theories on capital are effective in showcasing how various skills and resources gathered over an individual or groups lifetime will have different values and connotations depending on the situation and demographic. When and where those resources are recognized and valued, often for the benefit or enhancement of the lives of the dominant social group, they can be converted into capital." (Moore,2008)
== See Also ==
* [[Cultural capital|Cultural Capital]]
* [[Linguistic marketplace|Linguistic Marketplace]]
== References ==
[[Language]] is a dominant part of our daily activities; playing a significant role in narrating our actions and mediating our interactions with one another. According to author Joseph Sung-Yul Park, "language is understood as a form of capital that is mediated through social power relations".<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> These power relations are reflected through language when one's language is decidedly legitimate therefore allowing them access to opportunities such as jobs, services, connections, and personal opportunities.
This term has been used to the describe the different language resources available to a single person and the values assigned to each that one has generated through their personal experiences. Today, this term is used to look at the way in which these resources play a role in power dynamics at all levels, from individual, familial, institutional, governmental, and international roles.
== Linguistic Marketplace ==
There exists the notion of market value when it comes to language. Languages have a market value and a non-market value. A language has market value if said language can be used to attain monetary gains, or if the language can be assigned a price.<ref name=":1">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> For example, if someone speaks language X, it will be easier for them to sell to an X-speaking public, in turn leading to higher profits. In other situations, an employee earns more money simply because they speak language X. In these circumstances language X has a high market value.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
The non-market value of a language is not as straightforward as market value. The non-market value is heavily dependent on the individual and their tastes. When on knows language X, they have access to the language's culture. This will facilitate social interaction with members of the X-speaking language community. This sort of value cannot be measured in terms of market prices. This perspective could also be applied to the non-market value of language diversity. Some people may value highly various languages in their linguistic environment in the same way one would value a natural environmental quality. Both market and non-market values could determine why an individual would or would not decide to learn a language.<ref name=":1" />
According to Bourdieu<ref name=":0" />, people's utterances can be seen as their linguistic products, and they can anticipate the value of their products in the marketplace through different contexts. Different speakers have different quantities of linguistic capital; different speakers have different capacities to produce expressions that is valuable for a specific market. This explains why individuals speak in a certain language, dialect, and tone that is appropriate to their current market, such as their workplace, with family, or in education. Like other forms of capital, the linguistic capital that an individual possess is a metaphorical/abstract reflection of their position in a social space.<ref name=":1" />
== Power Language Index (PLI) ==
In a study conducted by the [[INSEAD|European Institute of Business Administration]], Kai Chan created a Power Language Index that ranked languages based on the following five opportunities provided by language comprehension: the ability to travel widely, the ability to earn a livelihood, the ability to communicate with others, the ability to acquire knowledge and consume media, and the ability to engage in diplomacy.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Within these five sections, Chan used 20 indicators such as the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] associated with countries that speak a certain language, the amount of land area where a language is spoken, and amount of internet/media content associated with the language to rank them. From his research Chan concluded that [[English language|English]] is not only the most powerful language overall, but also the most powerful language across the five categories. The second most powerful language, [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], is deemed to be only half as powerful as English as well. This may be surprising since Mandarin is the language spoken by the most people in the world, but it is not spoken widely outside of Mandarin nations and that is where it falls short. As for other languages in the top ten, they can be strong in one or two categories (such as [[French language|French]] for diplomacy or [[Hindi]] in the knowledge and media category), but none have an equivalent across the board dominance like English.
== Theoretical Research ==
=== Canada ===
With [[Canada]] being a country that has two official languages, (English and French), one might believe that it would be of equal importance for immigrants to learn either English or French. However, as Huot et. al (2018) argue, the English language holds much more linguistic capital within much of the Canadian community.<ref name=":2">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> In their [[London, Ontario]]-based study, the entirely Canadian-based research team aimed to interview 10 immigrants from various backgrounds living in London with the goal of examining "the power of language in shaping immigrants' engagement in occupations during their integration into a host society".<ref name=":2" /> The interviews Huot and her team conducted involved asking participants about their integration into the new community and their experiences in finding an occupation. From the interviews, the researchers discovered that across each of the 10 participants, learning English was an essential aspect of their integration into Canadian society. Whether it be for finding work, making daily interactions easier, or for giving their children better opportunities, each of the participants found learning English to be far more important than learning French. As one of the participants described:
"We have to make an incredible effort, like I did, to learn [English] and to speak it perfectly, to search, to study, to volunteer, to look for work. And then after a few...it doesn't take a lot of time, 2 years, 3 years, and... why not? It's worth it. Other-wise, they [immigrants] will remain always reclusive, on the margins of society, and it will be difficult for society and difficult for them".<ref name=":2" />
Relating the study back to the concepts of Bourdieu, the researchers explain how Bourdieu believed that "those whose linguistic resources are devalued are also perceived to be less competent".<ref name=":2" /> By learning and speaking English, the immigrants in this study were able to acquire more linguistic capital, be perceived as being more competent, and establish themselves in Canadian society.
=== South Korea ===
In the case of [[South Korea]], being able to speak English proficiently also elevates one's status within society. However, as explained by Joseph Sung-Yul Park (2011) while writing for the International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, since Korean is the dominant monolingual language, the ability to speak English is valued by certain businesses and universities but is obviously not a requirement to fit into South Korean society.<ref name=":3">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Many South Koreans view the English language as valuable commodity of sorts that better allows them to obtain university degrees and high paying jobs. In this sense, South Koreans recognize that being able to speak Korean will only get them so far and that they will need to learn English because it is a language that holds more linguistic capital on the international scale. Park even provides a report from Korean technology giant Samsung's Economic Research Institute that states "Individual workers can increase their competitiveness in employment, promotion, and self-development through improving their English language skills".<ref name=":3" />
Parents in South Korea will also go to great lengths to provide their children with the advantage of being able to speak English. Children will often be enrolled in English-only kindergartens and in some cases placed in study abroad programs in English-speaking countries when they are young in order to better develop a native English-speaking accent. Enormous amounts of money are out forth by Korean parents to ensure that their children can learn English in an attempt to ensure that their kids have the best chance possible to be successful in the future.
This trend of an increased desire to learn English will likely continue in Korea as well because as long as English maintains its position as the dominant language in international business, Korean businesses will continue to place a high value on employees who are able to speak the language.
=== United States ===
One research article highlighted how individuals, especially children who possess linguistic competency in two or more languages, perform better than monolingual individuals on a variety of cognitive measures, such as problem solving tasks.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Later in life, bilingual people reportedly have a five-year delay over monolingual individuals developing dementia, since some additional neural pathways are kept open and functional as a result of using two or more languages.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref> Professional/vocational — More professional opportunities are available to individuals who speak both.Utilitarianism of Spanish — There are many Spanish language speakers in US, as it is the second largest language in the US. Yet while knowledge of Spanish language may be desirable, according to the article, it is highlighted that some political thought feels endangered by the growing multilingualism in the US.<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (1 for 2)</ref>
== Relationship Between Lingua Franca and Linguistic Capital ==
English exists as the [[Lingua franca|Lingua Franca]] of the world today, due to the diverse complexity and web-like system of countries and communities that have adopted English as a national, commercial, or social form of communication. Globalization, colonialism, and the capitalist system have all helped promote English as the world's dominant language, supplemented by years of British and American hegemony on the world stage. Today, nearly 1.39 billion people speak English according to the World Economic Forum, with its prominence over other languages highlighted through its geographic diversity of where it is spoken. According to Arwen Armbrecht, author of an article published on the World Economic Forum, Mandarin Chinese Mandarin is the most spoken first language in the world, however its influence lags behind English due to the limited use outside of Mandarin speaking nations. See attached article.<ref name=":4"></ref>
== Critiques ==
=== English's Prominence on the Internet ===
Mandarin Chinese is the most spoken language in the world, by measure of native first language speakers. However, it is not considered the Lingua Franca of the world, English is. Many scholars attribute the widespread use of English largely to the internet. there are more Chinese nationals surfing the internet than any other nationality in the world, however English remains the most commonly spoken language on the internet. This can be attributed to multiple factors such as the use of websites primarily designed for the use of Chinese for the Chinese people, and censored internet. This can be described as a means of creating a form of [[Language isolate|linguistic isolation]]. According to Arwen Ambricht from the [[World Economic Forum|WE Forum]], the use of Mandarin as a [[Lingua franca|Lingua Franca]] is not spreading because, "it's limited to networks such as Sina Weibo (Chinese Twitter) and Baidu Baike (Chinese Wikipedia). A similar phenomenon can be seen in Russia, where VK (Russian Facebook) is used more than many global social networks."<ref name=":4" />
Bourdieu's theories on capital are effective in showcasing how various skills and resources gathered over an individual or groups lifetime will have different values and connotations depending on the situation and demographic. When and where those resources are recognized and valued, often for the benefit or enhancement of the lives of the dominant social group, they can be converted into capital." (Moore,2008)
== See Also ==
* [[Cultural capital|Cultural Capital]]
* [[Linguistic marketplace|Linguistic Marketplace]]
== References ==
April 30, 2019 at 12:48PM
