Janet Friedman

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Janet Friedman

Tushingham: ←Created page with ''''Janet Friedman''' (1945-2002) was an American archaeologist who made major contributions to cultural resource management...'

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'''Janet Friedman''' (1945-2002) was an American [[archaeologist]] who made major contributions to [[Cultural resources management|cultural resource management]] and was an early contributor to the development of wet site archaeology. As head archaeologist for the [[United States Forest Service|United States Forest Service (USFS)]] and later as Federal Preservation Officer for the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) and member of the [[Advisory Council on Historic Preservation]] (ACHP), Friedman was actively involved in developing the [[Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979]] (ARPA) from its naissance. She was a member of the [[Society for American Archaeology]] (SAA), the [https://www.wcee.org/ Women's Council on Energy and the Environment], and the [https://ift.tt/3d0kiUQ Mid-Atlantic Archaeological Conference] and, as one of the first female students in [[Washington State University]]'s (WSU) [https://anthro.wsu.edu/ Anthropology] doctoral program, she actively mentored women in cultural and environmental sciences throughout her career, promoting [[gender equality]] in the field.

== '''Early Life''' ==
Janet Friedman was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1945<ref name=":0">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>.  During her childhood, her family relocated to Los Angeles, California, where she attended high school in North Hollywood.<ref name=":0" />  She met her husband, Edward (Ed) Friedman, in Los Angeles and they were married in 1964, with their first son, Daniel born in 1965. The two would remain married until 1983.

Interested in social work, the pair enrolled in the Anthropology program at WSU in Pullman, Washington (Friedman 2019). Looking for work summer work after their first semester, the couple contacted [[Richard Daugherty]] in the Anthropology Department, knowing that the department was currently involved in archaeological field work.  The first option they were given did not work, as the field director refused to have pregnant women on site despite being located in a populated area. Daugherty, not taking issue with Janet's pregnancy, offered the couple graduate student positions with the [[Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site|Ozette Archaeological Project]] in Washington State.  Their second son, Roger, was born in 1970.

Both Janet and Ed worked at Ozette from 1970-1971, and then moved to positions at [[Neah Bay, Washington|Neah Bay]] until Ed finished his PhD in 1976, Janet having completed her dissertation in 1975, entitled ''The Prehistoric Uses of Wood at the Ozette Archaeological Site''<ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 2, expected 1)</ref>.  While in Neah Bay, Janet acted as research archaeologist and Laboratory Director from 1973-1976.<ref name=":0" />.  Janet would come to be referred to as one of 'Daugherty's Daughters' during her time at WSU, as she was one of six female students in the first generation of female students in WSU's doctoral program.

== '''Career''' ==
After finishing up her work at Ozette, Janet Friedman briefly took a job as Research Archaeologist running a cultural resource program for Northern California State University, Chico, in 1976, before moving to the position of Archaeologist for the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area Planning Team, which encompassed portions of the Nez Perce, Payette, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests.<ref>Wallowa-Whitman National Forest (1977). ''Wallowa-Whitman National Forest News Release''. September 26^th, 1977.</ref>  Friedman helped write management plans for the Hells Canyon National Recreation Area and the Snake River in Oregon and Idaho.<ref>Friedman, Janet (1978a). ''Cultural Resources Protection Plan, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.'' Hells Canyon NRA, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. Baker, OR.</ref><ref>Friedman, Janet (1978). ''Paleontological overview, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.'' November 1978. Hells Canyon NRA, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. Baker, OR.</ref><ref>Friedman, Janet (1982). ''Archaeological Overview, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.'' Vol. 1. Hells Canyon NRA, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. Baker, OR.</ref> She advocated for the consideration of cultural resources in planning and management decisions as a means of ending the extensive looting that was taking place in the forests. In 1978, Friedman became the Chief Archaeologist and Director of Cultural Resources Management with the [[United States Forest Service|Forest Service]] in Washington, D.C., where she managed nearly 100 cultural resource professionals across nine regional and field offices.<ref name=":1">United States Department of Agriculture (1979). What Archaeologists Are Doing In USDA. In: '''USDA': Employee Newsletter of the U.S. Department of Agriculture'' 38(26). December 19^th, 1979.</ref>

Friedman represented the Forest Service at a January 9^th, 1979 meeting with the House Interior Committee to review what was, at the time, the Sheenhan-Neuman draft of what would become ARPA and to develop regulations for the act, in an effort to strengthen the permit and penalty provisions put forward by the 1906 Antiquities Act.<ref>Friedman, Janet, Editor (1985a). A History of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act: Laws and Regulations''.'' Special Section, ''American Archaeology'' 5(2): 81-118.</ref><ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>. Friedman then moved up to the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] as Assistant Director of the Office of Environmental Quality that same year, later becoming the department's Federal Preservation Officer in 1980, where she was assigned to represent the [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]] on the [[Advisory Council on Historic Preservation|ACHP]], and continuing work on ARPA throughout this period of her career. She continued to act as a private consultant for the ACHP after [[Ronald Reagan|President Ronald Reagan]] dissolved the Office of Environmental Quality in 1982.

Friedman's next line of work was as Senior Environmental Scientist for United Engineers and Constructors, providing historic preservation, environmental review, and tribal consultation services to the [[United States Department of Energy]]'s (DOE) nuclear waste repository siting program.<ref name=":0" /> In 1987 she was Project Director for SRA Technologies, Inc., where she managed the [[Environmental impact statement|Environmental Impact Statement]] of DOE's high-level nuclear waste repository. After this, she began supervising environmental review work for Dames and Moore, Inc. in Bethesda, Maryland, a company with which she would produce a multitude of reports over the remainder of her career. It was around this time, 1988, that she received her diagnosis of leukemia, from which she would pass away 14 years later on January 24^th, 2002<ref name=":0" />.

=== '''''Contributions to Cultural Resource Management (CRM)''''' ===
Janet Friedman made substantial contributions to public archaeology or [[Cultural resources management|cultural resource management]] in the United States beginning in the 1970s. Early in her career, Friedman recognized government agencies as a means to make positive contributions to the field of archaeology and specifically as a means to protect and better manage the cultural environment.<ref name=":1" />  During her participation in developing [[Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979|ARPA]], Friedman advocated for clear and specific yet broad and flexible, content dependent definitions of what constitutes an antiquity to avoid the vague definition provided in the [[Antiquities Act|1906 Antiquities Act]] that failed as a viable tool for protecting antiquities.<ref>Friedman, Janet (1985b). The Regulations: The Early Years. ''American Archaeology 94'', 5(2): 94-101.</ref> (Friedman 1985b). She additionally advocated for the 'living archaeology' approach as a way to engage the public and also to engage and ensure involvement of native descendants of archaeological sites, a crucial part of the success of the Ozette Project that she was involved in at WSU.

== '''Legacy''' ==
In addition to her work on [[Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979|ARPA]] and developing planning and management strategies for cultural resources on Forest Service Lands, Friedman also paved the way for more women to follow her into the field of [[Cultural resources management|Cultural Resource Management]] (CRM).  She mentored women in CRM, advocating for increased gender equality in archaeology and leading by example.<ref>Friedman, Roger (2002). Janet Friedman Memorial Fellowship. Washington State University. Available At: <nowiki>https://anthro.wsu.edu/scholarships/janet-friedman-memorial-fellowship/</nowiki>.  Accessed September 1^st, 2019.                 </ref> Friedman acted not just as a mentor to archaeologists, but to young professionals in a variety of fields involving resource management.<ref name=":0" />   The [https://ift.tt/2IJxIXv Janet Friedman Memorial Fellowship] continues to give support to graduate students at WSU with an emphasis on female students interested in cultural resource management.

== '''Bibliography''' ==

=== Selected Journal Articles and Book Chapters ===

* Daugherty, Richard, and Janet Friedman (1983). An Introduction to Ozette Art. In ''Indian Art Traditions of the Northwest Coast'', edited by R.L. Carlson, pp. 183-195. Archaeology Press, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC.
* Friedman, Janet (1981). Archaeological Resources Protection Act Law Enforcement Training. ''Anthropology News,'' 22(5): 6.
* Friedman, Janet (1983). Woman as Applied Archaeologist: A Personal Perspective.  ''Women Practicing Anthropology'', 6(1): 6-7.
* Friedman, Janet (Ed.), (1985a). A History of the Archaeological Resources Protection Act: Laws and Regulations''.'' Special Section, ''American Archaeology'' 5(2): 81-118.
* Friedman, Janet (1985b). The Regulations: The Early Years. ''American Archaeology 94'', 5(2): 94-101.
* Friedman, Janet (1985c). ARPA Law-enforcement Training. ''American Archaeology 94'', 5(2):108-109.
* Friedman, Janet L. and Barbara J. Little (1993). Protecting cultural resources in managing chemical pollution. ''Journal of Hazardous Materials'', 35(2): 229-239.

=== Dissertation ===

* Friedman, Janet (1975). ''The Prehistoric Uses of Wood at the Ozette Archaeological Site''. Washington State University. Pullman, WA.

=== Selected Reports and Books ===

* Friedman, Janet (1976). ''Archaeological Overview for the Mt. Dome and Timbered Craters Regions, North Central California.'' Archaeological Overview for the Mt. Dome and Timbered Craters Regions, North Central California. California Historic Resource Information System, California State University, Chico.
* Friedman, Janet (1978a). ''Cultural Resources Protection Plan, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.'' Hells Canyon NRA, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. Baker, OR.
* Friedman, Janet (1978b). ''Wood Identification by Microscopic Examination: A Guide for the Archaeologist on the Northwest Coast of North America''. British Columbia Provincial Museum. Victoria, BC.
* Friedman, Janet (1978). ''Paleontological overview, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.'' November 1978. Hells Canyon NRA, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. Baker, OR.
* Friedman, Janet (1981). Cultural resource protection in Hells Canyon NRA or how much does an artifact cost? In ''Cultural resources law enforcement: An emerging science'', complied by D.F. Green and P. Davis. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Southwestern Region.
* Friedman, Janet (1982). ''Archaeological Overview, Hells Canyon National Recreation Area.'' Vol. 1. Hells Canyon NRA, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest. Baker, OR.

== References ==
<br />
<references />

March 15, 2020 at 08:18AM

Mieczysław Baszko

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Mieczysław Baszko

T Magierowski: added political affiliation

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[[File:Mieczysław Baszko Sejm 2016a.jpg|thumb|Mieczysław Baszko]]
'''Mieczysław Kazimierz Baszko''' (born 26 June 1961 in [[Boratyńszczyzna|Boratyńszczyźna]])<ref></ref> – is a Polish politician, from 2014 to 2015 marshal of the [[Podlaskie Voivodeship]],<ref></ref> member of the VIII and IX Sejm<ref> Wybory do Sejmu RP i Senatu RP|website=parlament2015.pkw.gov.pl|access-date=2020-03-14}}</ref>.<ref></ref> Member of [[Agreement (political party)|Agreement]], until 2018 member of [[Polish People's Party|PSL]]. <ref>Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>












<br />

== References ==

March 15, 2020 at 08:01AM

Václav Kopecký

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Václav Kopecký

Buidhe: added Category:Czechoslovak communists using HotCat

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'''Václav Kopecký''' (27 August 1897 – 5 August 1961) was a Czechoslovak Communist politician. He spent World War II in the Soviet Union and served as the Minister of Culture (1945–1953) and Information (1953–1954) in the postwar Czechoslovak government.<ref></ref> In July 1944, he declared:
Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>}}

==References==


[[Category:1897 births]]
[[Category:1961 deaths]]
[[Category:Czechoslovak communists]]

March 15, 2020 at 06:11AM

Afghan Government Postpones Prisoner Release, Endangering Deal

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Afghan Government Postpones Prisoner Release, Endangering Deal

The Afghan government Saturday postponed the release of 1,500 Taliban prisoners, an Afghan official said, a decision that could sabotage a peace deal signed last month between the Taliban and the United States.

Jawed Faisal, spokesman for the Afghan National Security Adviser's office, said the releases were being delayed because more time was needed to review the list of prisoners. The move came despite President Ashraf Ghani's decree earlier this week promising the start of the releases Saturday as a goodwill gesture to get intra-Afghan negotiations started.

The U.S.-Taliban deal was touted at the time as the best chance at ending Afghanistan's wars and bringing U.S. troops home after nearly 19 years.

There was no immediate response from the Taliban to the delayed prisoner release.

Faisal said Ghani's government wanted more time to review the list of prisoners. The U.S.-Taliban deal called for the release of up to 5,000 Taliban as well as 1,000 Afghan government captives ahead of intra-Afghan negotiations, considered a critical next step to reaching a lasting peace in Afghanistan.

Ghani's decree promised the release of 100 prisoners a day beginning Saturday until 1,500 prisoners were released. He would then release the remaining 3,500 after intra-Afghan talks began and those releases would be staggered and would go ahead only if talks progressed and Taliban reduced violence.

Although Ghani's decree differs from the U.S.-Taliban deal, Faisal insisted Ghani was committed to releasing 5,000 Taliban prisoners.

FILE - Afghanistan's President Ashraf Ghani, left, and Afghanistan's Chief Executive Abdullah Abdullah attend a NATO summit in Warsaw, Poland, July 8, 2016.

Political turmoil

However, Ghani is embroiled in political turmoil in Kabul, where he is battling his leading political rival, Abdullah Abdullah, who has also declared himself president. Abdullah has so far refused to accept the results of last year's presidential results charging widespread irregularities and abuse of power by Ghani. Still, the national election commission last month declared Ghani the winner despite allegations lodged also by the elections complaints commission.

Meanwhile, the decree Ghani announced Wednesday said the first round of 1,500 prisoners to be freed would be selected based on age, health and the length of their sentences already served. The released prisoners, who would be biometrically identified, would also have to give a written guarantee that they would not return to the battlefield.

The Taliban handed off their list of 5,000 to an American negotiator, who delivered it to the Afghan government administration. The Taliban's spokesman in Qatar, where the insurgent group maintains a political office, said the Taliban would accept only those on the pre-approved list and warned Kabul against offering substitutes.

The Taliban said they were committed to the deal they made with the United States but would not start negotiations with the Kabul government or other political leaders until the prisoners were freed.

Even if the Taliban were ready to talk, it's not clear when Kabul would be ready to field a negotiating team, as the feud between opposing politicians has yet to be resolved.

U.S. exit not tied talks

The United States has said its withdrawal of troops — which has already begun — was not dependent on successful negotiations between Afghans on both sides of the conflict.

However, the U.S. State Department has issued statements urging Kabul's feuding politicians to find a compromise. It has also urged an end to ``posturing'' and has said many of the Taliban prisoners on the list have already served their sentence and that the names were decided upon after lengthy negotiations.

Washington also chastised the Taliban for resuming attacks on Afghanistan's security forces, even though they promised not to attack U.S. and NATO troops. Washington said that the level of Taliban violence was too high and that it  wanted to see a reduction.

Despite the political chaos in Kabul and increased violence on the battlefield, the United States has started withdrawing its troops in keeping with the deal it signed February 29 with the Taliban. In the first phase, Washington will reduce its troop contingent to 8,600, down from the current 13,000.

If the Taliban adhere to their commitments to deny terrorists safe havens in Afghanistan, Washington will withdraw the remainder of its troops over 14 months, according to the agreement.

March 15, 2020 at 05:17AM

Italians break out in song amid coronavirus lockdown

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Italians break out in song amid coronavirus lockdown Italians have been breaking out in song across the country in an apparent attempt to cope with cabin fever created by the coronavirus lockdown imposed by the government.
March 15, 2020 at 01:26AM

Coronavirus update in philippines

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Coronavirus update in philippines
March 14, 2020 at 10:00PM

Spain to Follow Italy Into Lockdown as Coronavirus Cases Soar

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Spain to Follow Italy Into Lockdown as Coronavirus Cases Soar

Spain decided Saturday to follow Italy in declaring a nationwide lockdown to slow the accelerating spread of the coronavirus epidemic, Spanish media reported.

Spain's decision came as European countries took ever more severe, though widely varying, measures to reduce contact between their citizens and slow the pandemic. China — where the virus first emerged late last year — continued to ease up lockdown measures in its hardest-hit region.

According to a copy of the royal decree seen by The Associated Press, Spain's government was to announce Saturday that it is placing tight restrictions on movement for the nation of 46 million people while declaring a two-week state of emergency. Prime Minister Pedro Sanchez was due to address the nation in the afternoon.

Health authorities in Spain said Saturday that coronavirus infections have reached 5,753 people, half of them in the capital, Madrid. That represents a national increase of over 1,500 in 24 hours. The country had 136 deaths, up from 120.

The number of new cases has dwindled in China, but the virus has in recent weeks spread exponentially in the Middle East, Europe and North America, leading President Donald Trump to declare a state of emergency for the United States on Friday. By Saturday, more than 145,000 infections and over 5,400 deaths had been confirmed worldwide.

Europe has now become the epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic, with countries imposing a cascade of restrictions in efforts to prevent their health systems collapsing under the load of cases. Schools, bars and shops not selling essential goods are among the facilities being closed in many places.

Residents in Madrid, which has around half the infections, and northeastern Catalonia had already awoken Saturday to shuttered bars and restaurants and other non-essential commercial outlets as ordered by regional authorities. Madrid ordered city parks closed and Seville canceled its Easter Week processions — one of Spain's most important religious and cultural events.

A man wearing a protective face mask walks at the usually crowded Plaza Mayor in central Madrid, Spain, March 14, 2020, after authorities ordered all shops in the region be shuttered die to the coronavirus.

Coronavirus elsewhere

Spain's measures to date, though, had fallen short of those ordered by Italy, the worst-hit European country, which has reached a total of over 17,600 confirmed cases — the largest outbreak after China — with 1,266 deaths. The government in Rome has ordered an unprecedented lockdown, ordering businesses to close and restricting people's movement.

Mayors of many Italian cities, including Rome and Milan, decided to close public playgrounds and parks. Under a government decree issued earlier in the week, people had been allowed in parks as long as they kept at least a distance of 1 meter between each other.

While limiting public life to a minimum, Premier Giuseppe Conte has said production — particularly of food and health supplies — must not stop. On Saturday morning, union and industrial leaders reached an agreement on special measures to keep factories running.

At noon, people around Italy came out on their balconies, terraces, gardens or simply leaned out from open windows to clap for several minutes in a gesture of thanks to medical staff.

For most people, the new coronavirus causes only mild or moderate symptoms, such as fever and cough. For some, especially older adults and people with existing health problems, it can cause more severe illness, including pneumonia.

The vast majority of people recover. According to the World Health Organization, people with mild illness recover in about two weeks, while those with more severe illness may take three to six weeks to recover.

Elsewhere in Europe, some countries moved to isolate themselves from their neighbors.

Denmark closed its borders and halted passenger traffic to and from the country, a measure that was due to last through April 13. Travelers were to be turned away at the border if they are unable to show that they have "a legitimate reason" to enter, for example they are Danish citizens or residents.

"I know that the overall list of measures is very extreme and will be seen as very extreme, but I am convinced that it's worth it," Danish Prime Minister Mette Frederiksen said.

Poland was closing its borders starting at midnight and denying all foreigners entry unless they lived in Poland or had personal ties there. Non-citizens allowed in will be quarantined for 14 days. The Czech Republic and Slovakia took similar action.

A man sits inside an empty tram amid an outbreak of the coronavirus, in Warsaw, Poland, March 14, 2020.

Russia said its land borders with Norway and Poland will be closed to most foreigners beginning Sunday.

On the other side of the globe, New Zealand announced that all incoming passengers, including New Zealand citizens, will be required to isolate themselves for 14 days, with few exceptions. Philippine officials announced a night curfew in the capital and said millions of people in the densely populated region should only go out of their homes during the daytime for work or urgent errands.

The steps being implemented globally increasingly mirror those taken by China, which in January made the unprecedented decision to halt outbound transportation from cities with a combined population of more than 60 million people, starting with the epicenter, Wuhan in the central province of Hubei.

The spread of COVID-19 in the country has slowed dramatically, according to China's National Health Commission. Whereas the commission reported thousands of new cases daily only one month ago, it said Saturday that there were 13 new deaths and just 11 new cases, including people who recently arrived in China from other affected countries like Italy.

The government of Hubei lowered its health risk assessments for all counties in the province outside of Wuhan, the only city that remains "high-risk." Several Hubei municipalities are gradually resuming public transportation services and reopening businesses.

Hundreds of parks, museums and art galleries have re-opened in Shanghai in another sign that epidemic-related restrictions are lifting.

The waning outbreak in China stands in contrast with an escalating number of infections elsewhere.

In the U.S., which reported its 50th death Friday, Trump said the new emergency decree will open up $50 billion for state and local governments to respond to the crisis. The president said the decree also gave the secretary of health and human services emergency powers to waive federal regulations to give doctors and hospitals "flexibility" in treating patients.

Drug company executives vowed to work together and with the government to quickly expand the country's coronavirus testing capabilities, which are far behind those in many countries.

Cases topped 2,100 across the U.S., where thousands of schools have been closed, concerts and sporting events canceled and Broadway theaters shut down. Trump has halted his trademark political rallies, following the lead of Democratic rivals Joe Biden and Bernie Sanders.
 

March 14, 2020 at 11:30PM

Iran Coronavirus Death Toll Passes 600, Syria Shuts Schools

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Iran Coronavirus Death Toll Passes 600, Syria Shuts Schools

Iran said Saturday the coronavirus outbreak has killed another 97 people, pushing the death toll in the country to 611, as war-ravaged Syria announced a number of strict measures despite the government saying it has no confirmed cases.

Iran is suffering from the worst outbreak in the Middle East, with 12,729 cases and even senior officials testing positive. It is a close ally of the Syrian government in the civil war, with military advisors as well as Shiite pilgrims frequently traveling between the two countries.

A spokesman for Iran's Health Ministry announced the latest cases on state TV. Health Minister Saeed Namaki said there would be "some new restrictions" on movement into and out of cities, without elaborating.

There are concerns that the number of infections in Iran is much higher than the confirmed cases reported by the government, with some Iranian lawmakers having questioned the official toll.

The outbreak has not spared Iran's top officials, with its senior vice president, Cabinet ministers, members of parliament, Revolutionary Guard members and Health Ministry officials among those infected.

Iran has suspended schools and banned spectators from stadiums, but religious shrines remain open and the markets and streets are still crowded in the capital, Tehran, which has been hit hardest by the virus.

For most people, the new coronavirus causes only mild or moderate symptoms, such as fever and cough. For some, especially older adults and people with existing health problems, it can cause more severe illness, including pneumonia.

The vast majority of people recover from the new virus in a matter of weeks, but the outbreak has caused more than 5,000 deaths worldwide.

A health worker tests a Syrian boy as part of measures to control the coronavirus, in Azaz, Syria, March 11, 2020.

Elsewhere in the Middle East

The Syrian government announced a series of precautionary measures, including closing schools and universities until April 2.

Following a Cabinet meeting Friday evening, the government also said it was reducing working hours in public institutions and canceling all cultural and sporting events, and all other events involving large gatherings, for the time being.

Syria also says it has taken preventive measures at all ports and border crossings. It has suspended travel with neighboring countries Iraq and Jordan, and it has halted religious tourism for a month.

Even in the tenth year of its devastating civil war, Syria has continued to receive large numbers of pilgrims from Iran, Iraq and neighboring Lebanon. They particularly visit the shrine of Sayida Zaynab, the prophet Muhammad's granddaughter, in a suburb of the capital Damascus.

Other countries across the Middle East have already taken steps to contain the outbreak.

Earlier Saturday, Saudi Arabia said it would halt all flights to the kingdom for two weeks. The state-run Saudi Press Agency, quoting an unnamed Interior Ministry official, said flights would be cancelled starting Sunday.

Authorities in Iraq's northern Kurdish region imposed a 48-hour curfew in the cities of Irbil and Sulaimaniyah that began overnight. The region has reported 27 cases, including one fatality from the COVID-19 illness caused by the virus.

The Gulf nation of Oman announced it would close all schools and educational facilities for one month.

In the United Arab Emirates, health officials ordered the elderly to stay home and authorities said some federal employees could begin working from home for two weeks starting Sunday.

Abu Dhabi's The National newspaper reported that nightclubs and tourist restaurants in the emirate will be shut down until the end of March. The Department of Culture and Tourism also suspended all planned events, including concerts, in Abu Dhabi. The decision does not extend to Dubai.

A number of major sporting events, conferences and other gatherings have been cancelled across the globe. The virus is highly contagious, and even those showing no symptoms can spread it, making large public gatherings particularly risky.

 

March 14, 2020 at 10:43PM

Top news in India

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Top news in India
March 14, 2020 at 12:00PM

Fuel container

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Fuel container

John B123: Added tags to the page using Page Curation (more footnotes, uncategorised)

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[[File:Diverse Kanisterformen.png|thumb|Various fuel cans in Germany]]
[[File:GasCan.jpg|thumb|One US gallon of gas in an F-style can]]
[[File:Malta - Mdina - Triq San Pawl 04 ies.jpg|thumb|A group of LPG cylinders in Malta]]

A '''fuel container ''' is a [[container]] such as a [[can]], [[bottle]], [[Drum (container)|drum]], etc for transporting, storing, and dispensing various [[fuel]]s.
== Construction ==
A wide variety of container types and constructions are used for fuels. Each has its own engineering challenges.

The [[jerrycan]] a robust liquid container made from pressed steel. It was designed in Germany in the 1930s for military use to hold 20 litres (4.4 imp gal; 5.3 US gal) of fuel. It is still in use today. Three [[package handle|handle]]s allow for two people carrying a full can or one person handling an empty can.

==Regulations==
Shipments of flammable or explosive liquids are highly regulated. Based on the [[UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods]] model regulations, each country has coordinated design and performance requirements for shipment. For example, in the US, the Department of Transportation has jurisdiction and published requirements in [[Title 49 of the Code of Federal Regulations]].

<gallery>
File:Britische copy wehrmacht-einheitskanister 1943 jerrycan.jpg|WWII [[Jerrycan]]
File:CPCCT Kerosene 4L can 20161107.jpg|4L can of kerosene
File:Embers Charcoal Lighter Fluid.jpg|Charcoal lighter fluid
File:Royal Air Force- 2nd Tactical Air Force, 1943-1945. CH13310.jpg|Drums of aviation fuel 1945
File:Ronsonol Lighter Fluid.JPG|lighter fluid can
File:CIMC tank container T11.jpg|Intermodal [[tank container]]
File:ATL-Cargo-Flex-Fuel-Bladders-Antartica.jpg|[[Fuel bladder]] Antartica
File:GasolineContainer.JPG|A typical gasoline container.
File:Drums Shell GTL fuel.JPG|[[Gas to liquids]] fuel containers
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Fuel tank]]
*[[Tank container]]
*[[Tank car]]
*[[Tank truck]]

== References ==



* Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,




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March 14, 2020 at 09:13PM

Umbrella Movement Founder Released From Jail, Vows to Fight on

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Umbrella Movement Founder Released From Jail, Vows to Fight on

A prominent pro-democracy campaigner and founder of Hong Kong's mass peaceful movement now known as the Umbrella Movement, professor Chan Kin-man, was released from prison Saturday, vowing to continue his fight for democracy.

The 61-year-old Yale-educated sociology professor emerged from the Pik Uk prison early Saturday after spending 11 months behind bars.  He appeared to be in good spirits, smiling and waving to a waiting crowd of dozens of supporters and journalists.

"We want genuine universal suffrage!" exclaimed Chan, after hugging his wife. 

"Life in jail was hard, but I have no regret at all, because a price has to be paid for the fight for democracy," Chan told supporters, who chanted pro-democracy slogans upon seeing him.

Chan and other founders of the 2014 civil disobedience Occupy Central movement, law professor Benny Tai and Baptist minister the Rev. Chu Yiu-ming, were sentenced last April for conspiracy to cause a public nuisance -- a rarely used colonial-era charge.  The sentence for Chu, 76, was suspended however.  Tai was released in August on appeal.

The men were among nine pro-democracy activists convicted over their leading roles in the Umbrella Movement in Hong Kong in October 2014, the largest civil disobedience movement in the city's history, which occupied thoroughfares in Hong Kong's business district for 79 days.  Protesters hoped to force the government into granting Hong Kong free elections, as promised in an agreement made before Britain's handover of the territory in 1997.  

The demonstration was sparked by Beijing's ruling in August that year that Hong Kong people could only vote for the city's chief executive from a list of candidates approved by Beijing authorities. 

The movement ended peacefully in December 2014 without gaining any concessions from the government.   An air of discontent and hopelessness pervaded Hong Kong in the following years, prompting many Hong Kongers' desire to emigrate. 

The simmering political tension exploded into Hong Kong's most severe political crisis last year.  At the start of what became a monthslong anti-government movement in June, an estimated 1 million took to the street to demonstrate against a controversial extradition law that would have allowed for individuals to stand trials in China.  The government's initial refusal to scrap the law and police violence prompted hundreds more protests for more than half a year, with police using live ammunition, rubber bullets, tear gas and severe beatings while radical protesters resorted to Molotov cocktails, setting fire to objects and occupying roads.

Asked what he thought of the movement, which started after he was jailed, Chan said he believed more Hong Kongers now understand why he and others had to resort to civil disobedience to fight for democracy.

"We hoped to make leaders humble and the government be accountable to ordinary people.  Only democracy can safeguard our freedoms and rule of law," he said. "I hope everyone will continue to make efforts."

He said he was "heartbroken" to see young people sacrificing themselves in the movement -- some committed suicide while around 40% of the more than 7,000 people arrested were students. 

"Young people's radical behavior was forced by the government," Chan said, condemning the authorities for repeated refusal to launch an independent investigation into police violence, which generated widespread anger.

"The government has no sincerity to find out the truth, how can people not be angry?" he asked.

Even years before the anti-government movement erupted in 2019, Chan, a respected sociologist, already predicted that growing discontent would lead to social unrest.

"We knew that if [the Occupy Central campaign] failed, there would be riots," he said in an 2017 interview.

March 14, 2020 at 06:31PM

Coronavirus Pandemic Prompts US National Emergency

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Coronavirus Pandemic Prompts US National Emergency

U.S. President Donald Trump said he is declaring a national emergency, clearing the way for more federal aid to stream to states and cities to combat the coronavirus pandemic.

"We will defeat this threat," Trump said Friday afternoon during a nationally televised news conference from the White House Rose Garden.  

Trump, who has declared five previous national emergencies, had come under increasing pressure, especially from opposition Democrats, in recent days to take such action as governors and mayors across the United States declared states of emergency, ordering the cancellation of public gatherings and closures of schools. 

The action by the president will free up tens of billions of dollars in funding in the Disaster Relief Fund. It allows a state to request the federal government pay for 75% of costs for such expenses as emergency workers, medical supplies, and tests and vaccinations to respond to the virus, which some epidemiologists warn could soon overwhelm the country's health care system.

President Donald Trump speaks during a news conference about the coronavirus in the Rose Garden at the White House, March 13, 2020.

"States are to set up emergency operation centers immediately, and all hospitals are to activate their emergency operation plans," Trump said.

He also announced purchasing large quantities of oil for the national strategic petroleum reserve.

"We're going to fill it right up to the top," he said. 

Trump also said he is ordering that interest payments on federal student loans be waived until further notice. 

Early Saturday, the House passed the Families First Coronavirus Response Act with a vote of 363 - 40.

The bill includes two weeks of paid sick leave for those affected, improved unemployment insurance and a bolstered lunch program for schoolchildren, among other elements intended to lessen the economic impact of COVID-19 on American families.

President Trump said in a post on Twitter that he supports the bill. 

The Republican controlled Senate will take up the bill next week, and Trump's support means the measure is likely to be approved. 

Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell said in a statement early Saturday the American people "deserve swift assistance with the economic fallout from the virus."  McConnell added that he had canceled the Senate's state work period next week, allowing the lawmakers to work on the legislation, and that he believed "the vast majority of Senators in both parties will agree" that swift action is needed to "secure relief for American workers, families, and small businesses."

Cases of the coronavirus have now been reported in 49 of the 50 U.S. states. Only West Virginia has not reported any cases. 

Two sisters talk on a phone as they visit through a window with their 76-year-old mother, who has tested positive for the new coronavirus, March 12, 2020, in Kirkland, Wash.

Only about 1% of the more than 145,000 cases of the COVID-19 disease are in the United States, but public health officials are bracing for a much larger number of patients. Some officials say the number may actually be much larger because of limited testing conducted, so far, for the coronavirus infection.

The largest U.S. cluster of deaths from the coronavirus is in the state of Washington, where 37 deaths have been reported so far.

In a nationally televised addressed Wednesday night, Trump restricted travel for 30 days, effective Friday at midnight, from most European countries with the notable exception of Britain. 

He confirmed that the federal government is partnering with the private sector to set up drive-through testing sites for the coronavirus amid frustration expressed by people who suspect they may be infected but cannot get tested.

The plan was discussed Friday during a meeting between White House officials and executives of the retail, pharmaceutical and technology sectors. 

The spread of the virus has unsettled global markets, with U.S. prices for securities dropping more than 20% on average from recent highs amid negative investor sentiment. 

The Dow Jones Industrial Average surged late Friday, finishing with a gain of nearly 2,000 points or 9.4% to end the week, recovering most of Thursday's losses.

Declaration Unleashes Presidential Power to Fight Virus

The new national emergency declaration triggers more than 100 statutory authorities available to the president to combat the coronavirus, which is now wreaking havoc across the United States

"These short-term sacrifices will produce long-term gains," Trump said Friday, acknowledging the spread of the coronavirus "could get worse. The next eight weeks are critical."  

During the Rose Garden news conference, with Vice President Mike Pence and members of the White House's coronavirus task force at the podium, Trump was asked repeatedly about him coming in close contact at his resort at Mar-a-Lago last weekend with a Brazilian official now known to have COVID-19.

The president initially responded, "I don't have any of the symptoms" and thus there is no need for him to be tested.

Later, when asked again about the encounter, Trump stated: "I didn't say I wasn't going to be tested" and that he "most likely" would have the nasal swab done "fairly soon." 

On Monday, the leaders of the Group of Seven leading industrialized countries are to hold a video conference to discuss the pandemic.

"We will coordinate research efforts on a vaccine and treatments, and work on an economic and financial response," French President Emmanuel Macron announced via Twitter.

The epicenter of the pandemic, which originated in China, is now Europe, World Health Organization Director Dr. Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus said.

March 14, 2020 at 04:35PM

Curfew in Manila

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Curfew in ManilaCurfew, metro manila lockdown guidelines, manila lockdown guidelines
March 14, 2020 at 07:00AM

Timothy of Constantinople

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Timothy of Constantinople

Srnec: cleanup

---

[[File:Timothy of Constantinople.png|thumb|Last page of Timothy's heresiography, from [[Bodleian]] MS Barocci 173, from an 11th-century [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] legal miscellany]]
'''Timothy of Constantinople''' (fl. c. 600/700) was a [[Chalcedonian Christian]] [[Heresiology|heresiologist]] and [[presbyter]] of the church of [[Constantinople]]. He wrote a treatise in [[Medieval Greek|Greek]] on [[Heresy in Christianity|Christian heresies]] from a Chalcedonian perspective, ''On Those Who Enter the Church, or On the Reception of Heretics''. This pastoral work is best described as "a handbook on the procedure for admitting heretics to the church".<ref name=FRT>Frank R. Trombley, [https://ift.tt/2WcvEzd "The Council in Trullo (691–692): A Study of the Canons Relating to Paganism, Heresy, and the Invasions"], ''Comitatus: A Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies'', 9.1 (1978), pp. 1–18.</ref>

Timothy classifies heresies based on the requirements for admission into the orthodox church placed on their members. In his first category were those heretics who would need to be baptised before they could be accepted into the church; in the second, those who needed to be anointed but not baptised; and in the third, those who only needed to abjure all heresy (including their own former beliefs) by pronouncing an [[anathema]]. The same three categories were used by [[Theodore the Studite]] writing one or two centuries later.<ref name=SNCL/>

In the first class, Timothy lists [[Manichaeans]], [[Tascodrugites]], [[Ebionites]], [[Valentinians]], [[Basilideans]], [[Montanists]], [[Eunomians]], [[Paulianists]], [[Photinians]], [[Marcellus of Ancyra|Marcellians]], [[Sabellians]], [[Simonians]], [[Menander (gnostic)|Menandrians]], [[Cerinthians]], [[Saturninus of Antioch|Saturninians]], [[Carpocratians]], [[Marcosians]], [[Apelles|Apelleasts]], [[Theodotians]], [[Elcesaites]], [[Nepotians]], [[Pelagians]] and [[Caelestius|Caelestians]]. These are mostly early heresies, many of them [[Gnostic]] sects. They represent theoretical problems more than actual ones, since few of them would have been active in Timothy's time. For this reason, Timothy does not distinguish between "elect" and "hearers" among the Manichaeans. He is interested in Manichaeism as a set of beliefs and not a practising sect. He does provide a valuable list of [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]]'s works.<ref>Lieu (1999), p. 230.</ref> Theodore the Studite, taking a more practical stance, lists only the Manichaeans, Tascodrugites and [[Marcionites]] in his first class.<ref name=SNCL/>

Timothy gives two slightly different lists of the [[miaphysite]] [[Non-Chalcedonianism|anti-Chalcedonian sects]]. The first is a list of sixteen groups Timothy labels [[theopaschite]] and the second is a list of "the schismatics called ''diacrinomenoi''", which contains twelve groups. Together the two lists name the [[Eutychians]] (including the Dioscorians and Petrites), [[Acephali]] (who are subdivided into three sects), [[Julianists]] (including the three sects of [[Gaianites]]) and Severans or Theodosians, who are subdivided into eight factions ([[Agnoetae]], Condobaudites, Niobites, two groups of [[Tritheists]] and the factions adhering to the patriarchs [[Pope Damian of Alexandria|Damian]], [[Peter III of Callinicum|Peter]] and [[Paul the Black|Paul]]).<ref name=TH>Theresia Hainthaler, "A Christological Controversy among the Severans at the End of the Sixth Century—The Conversion of Probus and John Barbur to Chalcedonism", in ''Christ in Christian Tradition, Volume 2: From the Council of Chalcedona (451) to Gregory the Great (590–604), Part 4: The Churches of Jerusalem and Antioch from 451 to 600'' (Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 387–388.</ref> He recognized [[Jacob of Serugh]] as orthodox.<ref name=PMF>Philip Michael Forness, ''Preaching Christology in the Roman Near East: A Study of Jacob of Serugh'' (Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 10.</ref>

Several sects mentioned by Timothy, such as the Melchesidechetae, had Jewish practices, including [[sabbatarianism]], celebration of [[new moon]]s and delaying baptism.<ref name=FRT/>

Some passages of Timothy are preserved only by quotation in the ''Pandects'' of the 11th-century monk [[Nikon of the Black Mountain]].<ref>Gustave Bardy, [https://ift.tt/39QCD4K ''Paul de Samosate: étude historique''] (Louvain and Paris: 1923), p. 421.</ref>
__NOTOC__
==Editions==

*[[Jean-Baptiste Cotelier]] (ed.), ''Ecclesiæ græcæ monumenta'', Vol. 3 (Paris: 1686), pp. [https://ift.tt/2IMraHq 377]–420 (''De receptione haereticorum'') and [https://ift.tt/2QdnEtW 420]–424 (''Ex Niconis pandecte'').
*[[Jacques Paul Migne]] (ed.), ''[[Patrologia Graeca]]'', Vol. 86 (Paris: 1865), I, cols. [https://ift.tt/2INiWyI 12]–69 (''De iis qui ad ecclesiam accedunt sive de receptione haereticorum'') and [https://ift.tt/2INiP6g 70]–74 (''Ex Niconis pandecte'').


==Notes==


==References==


==Further reading==

*C. Schmidt, "Timothy of Constantinople", in Siegmar Döpp (ed.), ''Dictionary of Early Christian Literature'' (Herder & Herder, 2000), p. 589.
*F. Carcione, "Il ''De iis qui ad ecclesiam accedunt'' del presbitero constantinopolitano Timoteo. Una nuova proposta di datazione". ''Studi e richerche dell'Oriente cristiano'' 14 (1991), pp. 309–320.


[[Category:7th-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:7th-century Byzantine people]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of death unknown]]

March 14, 2020 at 11:00AM

Pakistan Seals Borders, Shuts Schools, Bans Public Events Over Coronavirus

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Pakistan Seals Borders, Shuts Schools, Bans Public Events Over Coronavirus

Pakistan moved Friday to temporarily seal borders with Iran and Afghanistan, close all educational institutions and ban large gatherings at public places for three weeks, including wedding parties, to prevent the coronavirus pandemic from spreading in the region.

The preventative measures were announced on a day when officials raised to 28 the national tally of people infected with the virus. Pakistan, with a population of more than 200 million, has reported no fatalities since detecting its first confirmed case late last month.

State Minister of Health Zafar Mirza said that all of Pakistan's cases were imported by its nationals returning from countries, including Iran, Syria, China and the United Kingdom. He said there were no local transmissions of the virus as of Friday.

Syrian authorities, however, are reported to have denied the presence of coronavirus on their soil, saying dozens of suspected cases have tested negative.

Dr. Zafar Mirza, Special Assistant to the Prime Minister on National Health, speaks to reporters in Quetta, Pakistan, Feb. 26, 2020.

Emergency meeting

Mirza and other senior cabinet colleagues told a Friday night news conference that the decision to introduce emergency measures was taken at a meeting of the national security council chaired by Prime Minister Imran Khan and attended by top civilian and military leaders.

"We are completely closing our western border with Iran and Afghanistan for all human and commercial traffic for two weeks," Mirza said. The only overland border crossing with China will also remain closed for another two weeks for all traffic.

"This will allow us to boost existing screening systems at entry points there to prevent infected people from entering Pakistan," Mirza said, adding the decision would be reviewed after two weeks.

A health official of an emergency rescue service checks the body temperature of a government employee in Peshawar, Pakistan, March 12, 2020.

Pakistan shares a roughly 900-kilometer border with Iran, where officials have confirmed that COVID-19 has killed more than 500 people and that well over 10,000 others have been infected.

Pakistan's border with landlocked Afghanistan stretches to nearly 2,600 kilometers, with several authorized entry points for people and trade as well as transit activities. Afghan officials have confirmed seven coronavirus cases, linking them with the Iranian outbreak

Mirza said Pakistan also decided to restrict outgoing and incoming international flights to only three airports in the country, in Islamabad, Karachi and Lahore, saying screening measures at those airports would be reinforced immediately.

Pakistan's air links with Iran and China, where the coronavirus outbreak originated, remain suspended in the wake of the outbreak in both countries.

A barber wears a protective mask as a preventive measure amid coronavirus fears, as he gives a haircut to a customer along a road in Peshawar, Pakistan, March 13, 2020.

Schools closed, gatherings banned

Mirza said public and private schools as well as technical institutions across Pakistan would remain closed for three weeks. All public gatherings will be banned, including wedding halls and cinemas, for two weeks.

Pakistan's chief justices are being requested to instruct all courts not to schedule cases for three weeks, and no visitors will be allowed to visit prisoners in jails during this period, Mirza said.

Critics note that Pakistan, like other South Asian countries, is ill-equipped to deal with a large-scale health emergency such as coronavirus because of a poor and deteriorating health infrastructure.

Army spokesman Major General Babar Iftikhar confirmed to VOA on Friday that the annual national day military parade scheduled for March 23, where thousands of guests are invited, had also been canceled.

Organizers of Pakistan's largest national cricket competition, which features prominent international players, also shortened and closed its remaining matches to spectators. Many foreign players have opted to leave Pakistan.

March 14, 2020 at 08:32AM

Jan van der Burch

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Jan van der Burch

Andreas Philopater: redlink

---

'''Jan van der Burch''' (died 1595) was an office-holder in the [[Habsburg Netherlands]].

==Life==
Van der Burch was the son of [[Adrien van der Burch]], president of the [[Council of Flanders]]. He himself became a member of the Council of Flanders, and on 10 November 1569 was appointed [[master of requests]] to the [[Great Council of Mechelen]].<ref name=Guillaume>[[Gustave Henri Louis Guillaume|General Guillaume]], "Burch (Jean Vander)", ''[[Biographie Nationale de Belgique]]'', [https://ift.tt/2OILSvr vol. 3] (Brussels, 1872), 160-161.</ref> The [[Duke of Alva]] also appointed him a commissioner of the [[Council of Troubles]], responsible for identifying fugitives who had participated in the early stages of the [[Dutch Revolt]] and sequestering their property.<ref name=Guillaume/> When the city of [[Mechelen]] fell to the rebels in 1572, van der Burch was imprisoned, his house plundered and his servants killed. He was released and restored to his position when Alva [[Spanish Fury at Mechelen|retook the city]].

During the [[English Fury at Mechelen]], in 1580, he was able to escape the city. On 12 December 1584 he was appointed president of the Great Council, then [[Brussels Council of State|Councillor of State]], and finally, on 16 June 1592, president of the [[Brussels Privy Council]]. He died in Brussels on 5 July 1595.<ref name=Guillaume/>

==References==


[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:1595 deaths]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Brussels Privy Council]]

March 14, 2020 at 06:01AM

Coronavirus: What you need to know

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Coronavirus: What you need to know As coronavirus continues to spread across the globe, here is everything you need to know about the deadly virus.
March 14, 2020 at 12:41AM

Airports Turn Into Ghost Towns Amid Coronavirus Fears

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Airports Turn Into Ghost Towns Amid Coronavirus Fears

 

WATCH VIDEO:

The coronavirus outbreak is dealing a severe blow to the airline industry, as governments impose travel restrictions and would-be passengers stay away from traveling by plane for fear of catching the virus. Some analysts say the impact on airlines may become as bad as it was after 9/11. VOA's Bill Gallo reports from Seoul.

 

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March 13, 2020 at 11:19PM

Greece's First Female President is Sworn In

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Greece's First Female President is Sworn In

Greece's first female president, a former high court judge, was formally sworn in to office Friday, nearly two months after the country's parliament voted overwhelmingly to elect her.
    
The swearing-in ceremony for Katerina Sakellaropoulou took place in an almost empty parliament, as part of measures being taken to prevent the spread of the new coronavirus. Only a handful of lawmakers and a limited number of journalists were present.
    
Greece has shut down schools, universities, cinemas, theaters, gyms and nightclubs, and authorities have warned people to stay home and avoid large gatherings in an effort to contain the virus outbreak. The country so far has 117 confirmed cases and one death. The presidential swearing-in ceremony was being covered live on state television.
    
Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis nominated Sakellaropoulou as a non-partisan candidate who would enjoy broad support from across the political spectrum. All major parties voted in favor, with Sakellaropoulou being elected to the largely ceremonial post in a 261-33 vote in January, well above the 200 votes required. Six lawmakers were absent.
    
Greece has a low number of women in senior positions in politics, and Mitsotakis had been criticized for selecting a nearly all-male Cabinet after he won general elections in July 2019. In the current Greek Cabinet, all but one of the 18 senior positions are held by men.

March 13, 2020 at 08:06PM

Jim Daly: What is a 'date night' and why do you and your spouse need one?

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Jim Daly: What is a 'date night' and why do you and your spouse need one? I'm here to tell you that establishing a regular date night is well worth the investment.
March 13, 2020 at 08:00PM

New normal: Tom Hanks, NBA freeze, stock slide and confusion

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New normal: Tom Hanks, NBA freeze, stock slide and confusion In a sign of these volatile times, President Trump's Oval Office speech wasn't even the most noteworthy thing that happened that hour.
March 13, 2020 at 04:31PM

Conspiracy Theories, Misinformation Abound as Haitians Brace for Coronavirus

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Conspiracy Theories, Misinformation Abound as Haitians Brace for Coronavirus

As Haitian government officials intensify their efforts to inform and prepare the nation for the coronavirus pandemic sweeping the world, residents of Petionville, a suburb of the capital, Port-au-Prince, seemed woefully uninformed about the deadly disease.

"Do you know how people get infected with coronavirus?" a woman who didn't want to appear on camera asked VOA Creole's reporter. "It's the result of too many sins. That's why the disease is spreading worldwide. This is God's way of punishing us."

Louis Jeune François believes the coronavirus is a conspiracy. (Matiado Vilme/VOA)

Louis Jeune Francois, a voodoo worshiper who had just attended a service believes the pandemic is a conspiracy.

"There are 21 families which rule the world. Maybe they feel the population is too big, so they found a way to reduce it. They created a virus to kill a group of people," he said. "They especially want the virus to kill people in the poorest countries."

This woman told VOA Creole she doesn't believe the coronavirus only targets people who practice certain religions. (Matiado Vilme/VOA)

Another voodoo worshiper told VOA she doesn't believe coronavirus has anything to do with black magic.

"Coronavirus isn't just a hex on Haiti, don't you see China is infected with the virus too?" she said. "People who are blaming it on religion are wrong, the virus targets both Protestants and Pagans. You just need to be cautious."

Another man who didn't want to be identified seemed to understand the basics.

"From what I understand, the coronavirus is a virus. It's a virus that's transmitted through the air," he said.

Asked what preventative measures they can take to avoid being infected, residents offered various solutions.

"Don't shake hands, fist bump instead," one man suggested.

This market vendor says hand-washing and avoiding touching your face can keep you healthy, March 12, 2020. (Matiado Vilme/VOA)

"Wash your hands, don't touch your mouth, don't pick your nose, use a handkerchief," a woman selling clothing at the local open air market advised.

"I don't buy this washing hands thing," another man said. "Of course you have to wash your hands, because if your hand is dirty you won't be able to use it. I was brought up to do that. But some people say you should eat limes, eat local fruits, because they are natural (and won't harm your health)."

Expanding on the homeopathic remedy idea, a man told VOA he heard there are vegetable leaves you can boil to protect yourself from the virus.

"Boiling leaves is part of our culture," he said.

This man had accurate information about how the pandemic spreads but also believes consuming certain boiled plants can protect him from being infected. (Matiado Vilme/VOA)

Most people VOA Creole spoke to said the government should act more responsibly to inform the nation about the virus.

"Haiti is a free country, people do whatever they want here, but there are countries where planes are not allowed to land, transportation is restricted, but here there are no restrictions that I'm aware of," a woman shopping at the open air market said. "We have no protections whatsoever. We're in God's hands."

"If the government forbids groups of 500 people or more to meet, I will know that if I see that happening I should not attend," one man said. "But if the number they give is 1,000 or 2,000 then I'll go ahead and attend because it's hard to get that many people in one place around here."

Haiti's Public Health Minister Marie Greta Roy Clement announced Wednesday that the government has stepped up efforts to keep coronavirus out. The measures include screening at the nation's airports and official border crossings, training for health professionals and journalists, and public service announcements airing on radio and television.

Renan Toussaint in Port-au-Prince contributed to this report.

March 13, 2020 at 02:30PM

Experts: N. Korea’s Recent Launches Tested Missiles to Target S. Korea

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Experts: N. Korea's Recent Launches Tested Missiles to Target S. Korea

In recent tests, North Korea has been improving the firepower of its missiles that can target South Korea, making them ready to deploy on a battlefield, experts said.

"North Korea has been enhancing its firepower, war-fighting capabilities over the past two years, flight-testing a number of new systems," including the KN-25 missile and variants such as the KN-23 and KN-24, said Michael Elleman, director of the Non-Proliferation and Nuclear Policy Program at the International Institute for Strategic Studies.

Both systems "are capable of threatening targets in South Korea and are likely more accurate and lethal than the systems previously seen in North Korea," he said.

Compared with artillery positioned across the North Korean side of the demilitarized zone, Elleman said, the KN-25 missiles give Pyongyang the ability "to attack the South relentlessly in the opening hours or days of conflict."

North Korea's launches on March 2 and March 9 included KN-25 missiles that the regime began testing on August 24.  The March 9 launch was Pyongyang's sixth KN-25 test.

FILE - A missile is fired during the test of a multiple rocket launcher in this undated photo released Aug. 25, 2019, by North Korea's Korean Central News Agency.

North Korea tested similar missiles on July 31 and August 2, but they were smaller than the KN-25, Elleman said.

New for North Korea

The KN-25 is a long-range artillery rocket with a guidance system to control its flight path. Because it has a guidance system like a ballistic missile, the U.S. classifies the KN-25 as a missile. 

According to Elleman, the U.S. calls it "a close-range ballistic missile," a type of short-range ballistic missile. North Korea described both launches earlier this month as "long-range artillery" drills.

"The distinction between rockets and ballistic missiles is, really, kind of semantic at this point," said Ian Williams, deputy director of the Missile Defense Project at the Center for Strategic and International Studies.  "We're seeing more and more systems that don't fit either category perfectly."

Jeffrey Lewis, director of the East Asia Nonproliferation Program at California's Middlebury Institute of International Studies, said, "The old distinction used to be between missiles, which were guided, and artillery rockets, which were not. 

"Most artillery rockets are now guided because electronics are so cheap," he said.

Adding guidance technology to a long-range artillery rocket is relatively new to North Korea, Elleman said.

"The U.S. has been doing it for about 20 years," he said.  "But it's just been in the last five to 10 years that we've seen countries like North Korea and Iran adding guidance to what normally would be a large-diameter or long-range artillery rocket."

Although this technology may be new for Pyongyang, it is not a new strategic weapon. The country's leader, Kim Jong Un, said in January that "the world will witness" it soon.

"[The North Koreans] haven't publicly shown us something like that yet," Elleman said. "This is not a type of strategic missile."

Experts say enhancing flight trajectories and firepower has been North Korea's goal for its KN-25 tests since August.

A long-range artillery rocket like the KN-25 can normally fly up to 400 km at a relatively high altitude, Williams said.

However, he said, North Korea has been testing the missiles at shorter distances and lower altitudes in the March tests, indicating that the regime has a specific goal.

"The biggest difference for me is the altitude that it flew and the range," Williams said. "They're firing at a much lower altitude, and that's giving them a lower range. They're not flying as far. So, they're experimenting with different trajectory types so that they can attack multiple kinds of targets" in South Korea.

"The things they're actually maybe wanting to target with it are [U.S.] military bases in South Korea, airfields," he said. "Most of those are within 200 km of North Korea. So they're working out, making sure, and exercising in a way that they would use it in a war."

The missiles that North Korea tested on March 2 were launched from its eastern coastal city of Wonsan, and they flew 240 km.  The ones launched on March 9 from the eastern region of Sondok flew up to 200 km, according to South Korea's Joint Chiefs of Staff.

By comparison, the KN-25 missiles North Korea tested from August to November traveled between 330 km and 380 km.

FILE - People watch a TV that shows a file picture of a North Korean missile for a news report on North Korea firing short-range ballistic missiles, in Seoul, South Korea, July 31, 2019.

Testing for rapid firepower

If classic short-range ballistic missiles, which travel between 300 and 1,000 km, can reach the same distance as guided long-range artillery rockets, why is North Korea working on improving the KN-25? 

Firing more missiles at one time could be the answer.

A key distinction between a guided artillery rocket like the KN-25 and a short-range ballistic missile is the number of projectiles that can be mounted on a launch truck. 

Experts said multiple KN-25s can be mounted on a launcher and fired rapidly at short intervals, while ballistic missiles have to be mounted and launched one at a time from a single launcher.

"The truck that carries the missile to the launch point and fires them has four launch tubes," Elleman said. "So they're meant to be fired more than one at a time — probably, two, three, four at a time."

Photos released Tuesday by the Korean Central News Agency, the regime's official media outlet, show troops firing missiles from a truck-based multiple-launch rocket system with four launching tubes.

"It makes sense for them to want to maximize the firepower that they can get off a single vehicle, which may lead them away from things like a Scud missile, one big missile on one truck," Williams said. 

"Once [a ballistic missile] is fired, you have to [take them] away and reload. That takes a long, long time," he added.

After charting how fast North Korea fired the KN-25 from its tests conducted from August 24 to March 2, Elleman said the lag time between launches had been shortened, meaning the regime has been firing them faster.

"During development, I would expect a long time between actual firing. And that's what we saw, 15 to 20 minutes," Elleman said. "They made it a little shorter each time, essentially. … In November, it was 30 seconds. The last time [on March 2], it was 20 seconds."

How quickly North Korea launched the missiles on March 9 has not been assessed.

FILE - North Korean leader Kim Jong Un uses binoculars while attending a drill by a unit of the Korean People's Army, in this image released by the country's Korean Central News Agency, Feb. 29, 2020.

Wartime use

Elleman said firing the missiles in rapid succession suggests that the regime is testing them to be ready for wartime use.

"That would suggest that they're in the final phase of what they believe they need to do for full development," Elleman said. "And these more recent launches were probably done under military exercises, and it was likely launched by actual troops as opposed to engineers that would be responsible for developing the system."

The tests were part of North Korea's military drills during the regular winter training cycle.

"They're kind of firing them the way they would fire them during a wartime, during an operational scenario," Elleman said. "These are war-fighting tools."

Xu Tianran, an analyst for the Open Nuclear Network program at One Earth Future, said, "This is especially important for North Korea as its armed forces cannot provide enough air cover for its assets on the ground."

Elleman said these missiles could load a warhead weighing from 300 to 400 kilograms.

"So it's a pretty big warhead. It can do quite a bit of damage," Elleman said. "It will pretty much destroy almost any type of targets out to a distance of 20 meters" of its target.

Because North Korea has not developed a technology to miniaturize a nuclear warhead, these missiles cannot be used for nuclear weapons.

"I have seen no evidence that they could make a nuclear payload that small," Elleman said.

Williams said the Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) system would have hard time intercepting these missiles because they fly low and out of its coverage area. The Patriot long-range missile defense system could intercept an incoming KN-25, but there are  potential challenges.

"The challenge is detecting [the KN-25], seeing it coming with enough time that you can respond, enough time that you can get a fix on it, plan your engagement, and fire your interceptor," Williams said.

March 13, 2020 at 11:31AM

Experts: More Testing, Not Travel Ban, Will Curb Pandemic

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Experts: More Testing, Not Travel Ban, Will Curb Pandemic

U.S. President Donald Trump is blocking European travelers from entering the United States. Italy is limiting travel within the country to just the essentials. China locked down tens of millions of people, all in an effort to contain the spread of COVID-19.

While travel bans may slow the outbreak somewhat, a growing body of research is showing that the best tool is one that is falling short in the United States: testing and isolating infected people.

When the coronavirus erupted in Wuhan, China put in place unprecedented measures, limiting people's movement, canceling large gatherings, testing huge numbers of people and isolating the infected.  

Experts say these measures have tamed the epidemic in China. After more than 80,000 infections and more than 3,000 deaths, the country now is reporting just a few dozen cases per day.  

Without those actions, the outbreak would have been 67 times worse, according to a new study published on the preprint server medRxiv.

Other experts have not yet reviewed the study for accuracy.  

Biggest impact

As other countries grapple with their own exploding epidemics, the authors sought to figure out which of the three sets of measures — travel bans, social distancing, and detecting and isolating patients — were most effective.

A street performer sits alone at Fisherman's Wharf in San Francisco, March 12, 2020. Gov. Gavin Newsom said sweeping guidance for Californians to avoid unnecessary gatherings to prevent the spread of coronavirus will likely extend beyond March.

"The most important one, the biggest effect, was the early detection and isolation of cases,"  said Andrew Tatem of the University of South Hampton who co-authored the report.  

Without early detection and isolation, China would have seen five times as many cases. Without social distancing, there would have been 2.6 times more, according to the study.  

"But importantly, all three of those together had the biggest effect," Tatem added.  

Travel restrictions have a role to play, he said. They likely contributed less than the other measures in part because an estimated 5 million people had already left Wuhan, the epicenter of the outbreak, by the time authorities imposed them.  

"Acting early is pretty important," Tatem added.  

An earlier study found that China's travel ban slowed the outbreak there by just 3 to 5 days, and internationally by 2 to 3 weeks.

Too little, too late

Trump said travel restrictions he imposed on China in February delayed the outbreak in the United States, and restricting travel from Europe would have the same effect.

"The European Union failed to take the same precautions and restrict travel from China and other hotspots," Trump said in an Oval Office address Wednesday. "As a result, a large number of new clusters in the United States were seeded by travelers from Europe."

However, with coronavirus already spreading across the United States, experts say the new restrictions are unlikely to make much of a difference in this country.

"If you want to take a lesson from (the new study)," said virologist Christopher Mores at George Washington University, "it's that travel bans might be very effective at reducing the likelihood of (virus) introduction" at the beginning of an epidemic, "but once it's there, (containment) is wholly dependent on case isolation and social distancing."

"What is the ongoing value of a travel ban alone?" he added. "We're not doing the other things."

U.S. health authorities are struggling to identify and isolate patients because of a lack of testing capacity, despite assurances from Trump that testing is "going very smooth."

The gates to Gila River Arena, home of the Arizona Coyotes hockey team, are all closed and locked since the Coyotes' scheduled hockey game with the Vancouver Canucks was canceled in Glendale, Ariz., March 12, 2020.

"The system is not geared toward what we need right now," National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases chief Dr. Anthony Fauci told Congress Thursday. "That is a failing. Let's admit it."

Emotional reactions

Without good information on where and how the virus is spreading in the United States, school closures, event cancellations and other social distancing measures are happening without any data to back them up, Mores said.

"We can end up with a whole lot of decisions that are emotional," he added, "and have great potential to either under- or overreact."

Some of these measures may be best left in place for months to keep the virus from roaring back, Tatem's study notes, which would be hugely disruptive and a massive hit to the economy.  

With so many unknowns still surrounding how this new virus behaves, it's not clear when it will be OK to let up. For that matter, it's not entirely clear when it's best to clamp down.  

"The timing is important to consider," noted Georgetown University health policy expert Claire Standley. "At what point does that trigger need to be pulled? And is it better to go straight to the full-on interventions first, rather than waiting for cases to explode in the meantime?"

"I don't know the answer to this," she said. "I don't know if anyone does."
 

March 13, 2020 at 09:58AM

African Association (UK)

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African Association (UK)

Irnm98: remove comment

---

The '''African Association,''' known as the '''Pan-African Association''' after 1900, was an organization formed by leaders of [[Black people|African descent]] to mobilize and unify efforts against [[imperialism]], especially that of the [[British Empire]]. [[Henry Sylvester-Williams|Henry Sylvester Williams]] initiated the creation of the African Association, which was formalized on September 14, 1897, at its headquarters in [[London]]. The Association is best known for organizing the [[First Pan-African Conference|First Pan-African Conference,]] which took place in London in July 1900.

==Goals==

The African Association initially focused on providing information on rights and privileges for Africans who were subjects of the British Empire. Recognizing the need for an inclusion of African individuals on a global scale, the association shifted its aspirations in 1899, establishing itself as an international association to actualize African liberation across the world, rather than just the British Empire. The African Association listed its goals:

# Promote unity
# Improve relations amongst Africans
# Promote the interests of Africans
# Circulate information to teach Africans about their rights and privileges
# Inform the British public about occurrences in other parts of the world
# Inform people of, and potentially change laws for blacks in South Africa<ref name="Sherwood" />

==Development==

=== Early Formation ===
[[File:S. Williams 1905.png|thumb|Henry Sylvester Williams, ca. 1905]]
Liberation leaders and activists recognized the need for an international association to unite [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] and black liberation efforts across nations.<ref name="Schneer" /> To this end, Henry Sylvester Williams, a [[Trinidad|Trinidadian]] lawyer, recognized the need to focus on educating the British public. He believed the British public was unaware of the oppression and sub-standard conditions that non-whites were enduring throughout the British Empire.<ref name="Schneer">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Williams sought to establish the association in London, as London had become the locus of anti-imperialist movements, activism, and organization.<ref name=":0"></ref> Despite the comparatively progressive character of metropolitan London, white sympathizers advised against the founding of the African Association, claiming that black people were not capable of forming independent political organisations.<ref name="Schneer" /> Because of this conflict, active membership was restricted to black people but "white" individuals could become honorary members.<ref name="Geiss" />

In addition to general desire for the African Association, contemporary political events spurred its creation. The founders argued that  British colonial governments were creating a "new form of slavery" in [[Sultanate of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]] and [[East Africa Protectorate|East Africa]].<ref name="Sherwood" /> A letter from A. Kinlock, printed on ''[[The Friend (Quaker magazine)|The Friend]]'', the journal of the [[Quakers|Society of Friends]], on October 22, 1897, suggested that the association may have taken conditions in South Africa into account as well.<ref name="Sherwood" />

=== First Meeting ===
Little is known about the initial public meeting of the African Association except for brief mentions of its establishment in newspapers and the reports of the other groups. The meeting was organized sometime between September and November 1897 at [[Exeter Hall|Exeter Hall,]] London.<ref name="Sherwood" />

People who attended this meeting generally had working experience in the colonial government, including two members of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]]. Members were mainly from the Caribbean and West Africa, including religious leaders, political activists, educators, authors, and editors. Several women were also members, though they were titled as honorary members.

=== Political Agenda ===
The association's second public meeting was held on January 11, 1898, again at Exeter Hall.<ref name="Sherwood" /> After this meeting, the association quickly began work on their political agenda. In March 1898, Williams and Reverend Mason Joseph sought to interview the then [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], [[Joseph Chamberlain]] at the [[Colonial Office]] on two separate occasions. Both requests were rejected. A Memorial, written after the first rejection, suggested changes for the sugar industry in [[British West Indies]], advocating for small businesses to " 'reap a greater profit and for the greater exploitation of the 'geographical resources of the West India Colonies.' "<ref name="Sherwood" /> It also demanded strong measures against monopolies, supported better education, and measures to finance new farmers. Moreover, it aimed to lessen the cost of transferring land which Williams and Joseph argued was preventing people from acquiring [[Crown land]].<ref name="Sherwood" /> [[Minutes]] from the Parliament indicates this Memorial had been circulated among several members of parliament, as some had questioned Chamberlain on these issues. Nevertheless, no action was taken.

The Association held its [[annual general meeting]] on October 25, 1898. There, the Association published its first annual report and adopted two resolutions. One called for the British government to "meet the needs of the depressed condition of the islands," and protect "the rights of Native African races brought under British rule and to protect their interests from the caprices of the [[Chartered company|Chartered Companies.]]" <ref name="Sherwood" /> The other urged the establishment of Association branches in different colonies of the British Empire.

The Association's activities in 1899 were not documented as well as the years prior. The abolition of the [[Port-of-Spain Council]] created newer issues on the Association's advocacy agenda. The Liberal MP [[Harold Cox]] arranged a meeting between the [[House of Commons]] and the African Association, attended by figures from the APS and some anti-imperialist MPs. Here, Williams presented a petition that raises questions over the lack of representation of colonial subjects in the government. He requested specifically the re-establishment of the [[Borough of Port-of-Spain]] and certain forms of representation in the government. Chamberlain rejected this petition and reform altogether.

On another occasion, the Association took up the issue of the [[Human zoo|displaying of Africans as part of shows]]. Notably, another petition also reached [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Wilhem II]], the German Emperor, concerning similar issues and widening the Association's advocacy beyond Great Britain.<ref name="Sherwood" />

By early 1900, the association changed its office space from [[Gray's Inn|Gray's Inn]] to 139 Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge Street, London SW, and adopted the new name The Pan African Conference Committee (PAC).<ref name="Sherwood" />

=== Publicity ===
During 1898, Williams traveled extensively lecturing, establishing contacts, and increasing support. He met with members of the [[Aborigines' Protection Society|Aborigines Protection Society]] (APS), the [[Anti-Slavery Society]], the [[South Place Ethical Society]], the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], Society of Friends and the [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]].<ref name="Sherwood" /> The list of the honorary members expanded to include another MP, more religious leaders, and women. The Association established its first American contact, [[D. Augustus Straker]].<ref name="Sherwood" />

In addition to organisations and societies, Williams and the association maintained contact with several black leaders, including [[Booker T. Washington]]. Together they attended one of the annual general meetings of the APS, where they challenged [[Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey|Albert Grey]], a member of the board of the [[British South Africa Company]], about the conditions of native African population.<ref name="Sherwood" /> With the help of Washington's articles in various newspapers, the African Association became better known.

==First Pan-African Conference==

[[File:Invitation to Pan-African Conference at Westminster Town Hall July 1900.png|thumb|Invitation to the First Pan-African Conference, held July 23-25 1900]]
Much of the Association's work and Williams' travels were dedicated to publicizing and organizing the First Pan-African Conference, which took place in London in July 1900. In articles advertising the Conference, supporters of the African Association were numbered as 87 in England, 37 in Scotland, and 28 in Dublin.<ref name="Sherwood" /> The Pan-African Conference was the beginnings  of the 'Pan-African' global political movement that would emerge.<ref name=":0" />

The First Pan-African Conference faced financial difficulties but managed to get by with support from a few wealthy members.<ref name="Sherwood" /> Williams expected Washington, or at least his representative, to attend the conference. However, Washington could not attend, to which  Williams, in his correspondence, expressed regret.<ref name="Sherwood" /> Despite this, Washington continued to help Williams publicize the Conference. While in London, he attended several preparatory meetings and helped craft the program for the Conference, which covered "existing conditions, slavery, progress, African history, demands for 'Europe's atonement for wrongs' and the 'organised plunder' of Europeans."<ref name="Sherwood" />

=== The Pan-African Association ===
On the last day of conference, July 25, 1900, the African Association changed its name to Pan-African Association (PAA). It also changed its objective:<blockquote>[Securing] civil and political rights for Africans and their descendants throughout the world; to encourage friendly relations between the Caucasian and African races; to encourage African people everywhere in educational, industrial and commercial enterprise; to approach Governments and influence legislation in the interests of the black races; and to amelio rate the condition of the oppressed negro in all parts of the world.<ref name="Sherwood" /> </blockquote>The permanent office changed to Room 416, 61-2 [[Chancery Lane]], in central London.<ref name="Sherwood" /> Additionally, the Association created a bureau to collect information, data, and statistics on the conditions of Africans around the world.<ref name="Adi">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Branches in Africa, the West Indies, and the United States were established, and a general meeting was to be organized every two years, first in the U.S. then Haiti.<ref name="Adi" />

Other resolutions were passed in addition to the name change. One emphasizes an integral part of the Anti-Slavery Society's works with the PAA's vision. Another delivered the Association's "sincerest gratitude [for works] by the Native Races and Liquor Traffic United Committee" in prohibiting the traffic of liquors among native Africans. A memorial was sent to [[Queen Victoria]], requesting "more civilised" measures against the social conditions for the natives in South Africa.<ref name="Adi" />

A sub-committee headed by [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] drafted the "Address to the Nations of the World," which called on European leaders to struggle against racism and [[Disfranchisement|disenfranchisement]] and protect the right to self-government for African populations. It criticized conditions experienced by Africans in "the US, the colonies ruled by France and Germany, and the Congo Free State, as well as [[Ethiopian Empire|Abyssinia]], [Haiti], and Liberia, and the 'independent tribes of Africa.'"<ref name="Geiss" /> The draft included the famous line:<blockquote>The problem of the 20th century is the problem of the colour-line — the question as to how far differences of race which show themselves chiefly in the colour of the skin and the texture of the hair are going to be made hereafter the basis of denying to over half the world the right of sharing to their utmost ability the opportunities and privileges of modern civilisation.<ref name="Sherwood" /></blockquote>

=== Reception ===
In general, the Conference was well-received. Bishop Walters received letters from across the world praising the work of the Pan-African Association.<ref name="Sherwood" />

The Association and the conference itself were mentioned in several newspapers. However, West Indian newspapers mostly complained about the overconfidence in the conditions in South Africa, given it was negotiated by "colonists." These news reports were also critical of the exaggeration of the experiences of black people in North America and claim that there is no need to re-emigrate back to Africa.<ref name="Sherwood" />

Many newspapers report the "Address to the Nations of the World;" however, the famous line was intentionally left out as well as parts that called for African self-government.

==After 1900==

=== Jamaica ===
In 1901, Williams decided to take the PAA's advocacy efforts directly to the people of the Americas.

He arrived in Jamaica on March 1, 1901, where he stayed with H. R. Cargill, the only member of the Association in Jamaica.<ref name="Sherwood" /> In an interview with ''[[Gleaner Company|The Gleaner]]'', Williams explained that the PAA would represent the African subjects' voice and that the PAA "was in no way antagonistic to the British government. If the Negro were everywhere treated in a liberal, just and enlightened manner, he would become a better, more loyal and more valuable citizen."<ref name="Sherwood" />

Williams traveled extensively around Jamaica, setting up various branches of the PAA on the island, which were attended by many well-known figures. However, there were immediate disagreements, especially between Williams and the then Acting Governor, [[Sydney Olivier, 1st Baron Olivier|Sydney Olivier]], who claimed that black people in Jamaica were not oppressed:<blockquote>[The] Negro race in Africa is far back in the race for progress and needs help to bring them up in line with their more fortunate brethren in the West Indies and in America who had been considerably elevated by being brought into close touch with the white races."<ref name="Sherwood" /></blockquote>After two months in Jamaica, Williams departed for Trinidad.
=== Trinidad ===
The first meeting of the PAA in Trinidad was organized on May 31, 1901, and was reportedly attended by "a thousand persons." It was chaired by [[Edgar Maresse-Smith]], an avid supporter of Williams.<ref name="Sherwood" /> Williams was introduced by the local lawyer [[Emmanuel Mzumbo Lazare|Emmanuel Lazare]]. In this meeting, Williams announced the Queen's and Chamberlain's promises, demanded further provisions from the states on behalf of the PAA, and advocated for the rights and privileges for Trinidadians as full British subjects. The meeting also criticized the ongoing racial and class inequalities and called for Trinidadians to be more outspoken.<ref name="Sherwood" />

On June 28, 1901, the PAA's Trinidad branch was officially launched. In mid-July, Williams departed for the United States, where, despite a large African-American population, he and the PAA were not able to harness as much enthusiasm as in the West Indies.

==Dissolution==

According to the ''The Pan-African'', the Association's journal, the PAA ceased operations due to budgetary issues. However, recent scholarship suggests that the reasons for the Association's dissolution were more about personal politics. As Gwilym Colenso and Christopher Saunders explain, Frank Colenso, in his correspondence with Walters, criticized Williams for his " 'improper use of the title and method of organisation of the late association.' " <ref name="Colenso and Saunders">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> Colenso disapproved of Williams "[taking] policy decisions or making constitutional changes without reference to other committee members or to officers."<ref name="Colenso and Saunders" />

Furthermore, while bearing the title of "Pan-African," the PAA advocated solely for conditions of the native African populations in British colonies and protectorate. In particular, Frank Colenso saw Williams' work as being  "within a framework which was Anglo-African rather than Afro-American,"<ref name="Colenso and Saunders" /> thus "'denying'" Pan-Africanism. These disagreements between the American and British members within the PAA were another trigger of the PAA's disbandment.

With Williams away in the Americas, Colenso was able to act more independently and eventually take over power from Williams. However, his decision to dissolve the PAA was not a unilateral. There were other members and executives, who Colenso referred to as "'my colleagues,'" that did raise objections.<ref name="Colenso and Saunders" />

==People==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Board of the Pan-African Association (1900-1901)<ref name="Sherwood">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref> 98,99
|'''Title'''
|'''Name'''
|'''notes'''
|-
|President
|[[Alexander Walters|Bishop Alexander Walters]]
|
* Walters was born into slavery in Kentucky in 1858.
* He served as president of the [[National Afro-American Council]], and was a member of the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]].
|-
|Vice President
|[[Reverend Henry B. Brown]]
|
|-
|General Secretary
|Henry Sylvester Williams
|
|-
|Treasurer
|Frank Colenso
|
* Frank Colenso's brother, Robert Colenso, is demarcated as the Treasurer, but scholars suggest Frank Colenso was actually the treasurer. (S. O. 150)
* Frank Colenso born in South Africa to [[John Colenso]] and Sarah Frances Bunyon. He was educated as a barrister at [[University of Cambridge]] and became involved in the African Association in part because of his activism for Zulus and other natives of South Africa. (Gwilym Colenso)
|-
|General Delegate for Africa
|[[Benito Sylvain]]
|
* Sylvain was a Haitian journalist, diplomat, and lawyer.
|}
Executive Committee members:<ref name="Sherwood" />

* [[John Archer (British politician)|John Richard Archer]]
* [[Anna J. Cooper|Anna Julia Haywood Cooper]]
*[[Samuel Coleridge-Taylor]]
* [[Henry Francis Downing|Henry F. Downing]]
*[[Frederick J. Loudin]]
* [[Jane Cobden|Mrs. Jane Cobden Unwin]]

== Legacy ==

The Pan-African Association introduced [[Pan-Africanism]] as an ideology distinct from the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist movement in the British Empire]]. The conferences and meetings organized by the Association helped to create transnational links between activists of African descent.

Despite the PAA's dissolution, its branch in Jamaica continued to advocate for the same objectives, though under a different name, until at least 1903.<ref name="Sherwood" />

In Trinidad, the PAA's branch maintained enough momentum that local newspapers continued to report its meetings.<ref name="Sherwood" /> The branch continued to petition the British government in the hopes that [[Edward VIII|King Edward]] would extend the political rights of colonial subjects.<ref name="Sherwood" /> At various fundraising concerts, the branch attempted to further support from other [[British Caribbean|British Caribbean colonies]] as well.<ref name="Sherwood" /> Despite close connections between Williams and the Association's representative, Lazare, there was not enough enthusiasm for the PAA to continue operation. It died out in late 1901, when many original supporters moved on to create a new association with more local visions.<ref name="Sherwood" />

"Pan-Africanism" replaced Du Bois's "Pan-Negroism" and signified a more universal type of advocacy for the rights of native African population in the colonies and African descendants elsewhere. In addition, the model that the Association proposed, with congresses and meetings organized annually, paved the way for the formation of the [[Pan-African Congress]].<ref name="Geiss">Liquid error: wrong number of arguments (given 1, expected 2)</ref>
==See also==

*[[Pan-Africanism]]
*[[First Pan-African Conference]]
*[[Pan-African Congress]]
*[[Henry Sylvester Williams]]

== References ==
<references />

== Bibliography ==
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March 13, 2020 at 09:59AM